Social Psychology - Social Influence and Persuasion
Welcome to unit 4. Unit 4 reviews four important topics in social psychology; social influence and persuasion, prejudice and intergroup relations, group behaviour and power and leadership. In the first section 4.1, we shall look at different types and techniques of social influences. We will also examine persuasion as a form of social influence. Specifically, we will consider how people persuade others and how we can resist persuasion from others.
The second section of this unit concentrates on intergroup relationships. Specifically, three major concepts related to intergroup relations will be carefully examined. These three concepts are prejudice, discrimination and stereotypes. The explanation and content of prejudice will also be discussed. In this unit, we will also consider various ways to reduce stereotypes and prejudice. Lastly, the impact of prejudice will be covered.
Next we will examine groups. Definition of group, group roles, group action, and the ways groups think will be discussed in unit 4.3. Group actions include concepts like social facilitation and social loafing whereas group thinking includes processes like brain storming and group polarizations.
In the last section of this unit 4.4, the topics of power and leadership will be reviewed. In this section, the nature of power will be defined and the characteristics of good and bad leadership will be considered. The impact of power on leaders and followers will also be outlined. Finally, the ways that leaders justify their power and the concept of power distance will be discussed. Unit 4 covers chapters 8, 13, and 14 of the set textbook.
As this unit is divided into four sections, we suggest that you work through one section at a time and attend to all the exercises and self-test before moving to the next section. This way, you will have a better grasp of the specifics of the sections concerned.
Unit Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
1. Explain the ways that people influence each other and the ways to resist persuasion.
2. Define the concepts of prejudice, discrimination and stereotype.
3. Explain why prejudice exists and how to reduce stereotypes and prejudice.
4. Explain what groups, group roles, and group action are.
5. Describe the ways groups think and the pros and cons of these processes.
6. Define the concepts of power and leadership.
7. Describe the qualities of good and bad leadership.
8. Explain the ways that leaders justify their power.
4.1 Social Influence and Persuasion
Objectives
By the end of this section, you should be able to:
1. Describe the different types of social influence.
2. Explain the techniques of social influence.
3. Define persuasion.
4. Explain the ways to resist persuasion.
Introduction
In this section we will be discussing the different types and techniques of social influences. We will also examine persuasion as a form of social influence. Specifically, we will consider how people persuade others and how we can resist persuasion from others.
Types of social influence
Social influence in general refers to how one can be influenced or affected by others. Baumeister and Bushman (2010) divided types of social influence into two major forms: normative and informative.
Normative
Normative influence is related to the act of going along with the crowd in the effort to be liked and to be accepted. This is related to a human’s fundamental need to belong to a social group thus increasing their chances to survive. By agreeing on common beliefs, values, attitudes and behaviour, there will be a higher level of acceptance and survival possibilities. For instance agreeing with our friends can increase the chances of them liking and accepting us. It can also minimise the possibility of them being upset with us. If they continue to stay happy with us, they are more likely to help us when we need help, thus guaranteeing our success and safety.
Normative influence can happen when we are with a group of people we know and when we are with a group of people we do not know. We want these people to like us, whether they are our friends or whether they are strangers. When forming a study group for the first time, we are less likely to disagree with other group members, even though we may not know them yet at that point.
Asch’s (1955) classic study showed the powerful effect of normative influence. In his experiment, participants had to judge the length of the line (Figure 4.1). He found that people were willing to get along and make decisions consistently with the group even when the group made clear errors. Asch concluded that people would rather make wrong decisions than to suffer social rejection.
Figure 4.1 Which line (A, B or C) matches the first line? In the Asch conformity experiments, people frequently followed the majority decision, even when the majority answer was wrong.
Source: http://www.experiment-resources.com/asch-experiment.html
Informative
In informative influence, we go along with the crowd because we think the crowd knows more than we do. This is especially during ambiguous situations when we do not have a clear idea of what to do. Group norms refer to the beliefs or behaviours that a group of people accept as normal (Baumeister and Bushman 2010). Sherif (1935) conducted an experiment with the aim of demonstrating that people conform to group norms when they are put in an ambiguous (i.e. unclear) situation. Sherif used a lab experiment to study conformity. He used the autokinetic effect – this is where a small spot of light (projected onto a screen) in a dark room will appear to move, even though it is still (i.e. it is a visual illusion) Sherif found that over numerous estimates (trials) of the movement of light, the group converged to a common estimate Sherif said that this showed that people would always tend to conform. Rather than make individual judgments they tend to come to a group agreement. The results showed that when in an ambiguous situation (such as the autokinetic effect), a person will look to others (who know more / better) for guidance (i.e. adopt the group norm). They want to do the right thing but may lack the appropriate information. Observing others can provide this information.
Two types of situations produce informational influence:
1. Ambiguous situations: When people do not know what to do.
2. Crisis situations: When people do not have time to think what to do.
In these situations, people follow others because they think others know what they are doing. Consider trying to get your lunch from a large food court that you are not familiar with. There are many different stalls to choose from and you are not sure which one provides the best nasi campur. Subjected to informational influence, you may decide to go to the one with the largest number of customers queuing. On the other hand, in a situation where you see everyone running towards you and you do not know why, your natural reaction may be to run in the same direction as everybody else’s. In this context, you assume others perceive danger and it is important that you trust and follow their decision.
Pluralistic ignorance occurs when people are looking at each other for cues on how to behave. In reality, nobody really knows what to do and everyone will be in the same state of ignorance.
Informational influence can be associated with private acceptance - a genuine belief that others are right. Normative social influence may produce public compliance - where a person outwardly seems to be going along with the public but inwardly maintaining private objection (Baumeister and Bushman 2010).
We can summarise types of social behaviour as given below in Table 4.1.
Type of social influence Description
Normative influence Going along with the crowd in order to be liked and accepted; being liked.
Informational influence Going along with the crowd because you think the crowd knows more than you do; being correct.
Table 4.1 Types of social influence
Reading
Please read “Two Types of Social Influence” on pages 225-228 of your textbook.
Persuasive Design: Encouraging Your Users To Do What You Want Them To!
View more presentations from Andy Budd
Web Reference
1. See http://www.simplypsychology.org/asch-conformity.html for more information about Ash’s conformity experiment.
2. Listen to a BBC radio broadcast discussing Asch's Experiment and conformity in society today.
http://www.simplypsychology.org/asch.ram
Activity 4.1
1. What are the two types of social influences?
2. What type of conformity based on a fear of social rejection?
3. Briefly explain the two types of situation that produce informational influence?
Techniques of social influence
Baumeister and Bushman (2010) stated techniques of social influence can be organized around four basic principles:
1. Commitment and consistency
2. Reciprocation
3. Scarcity
4. Capturing and disruption attention
1. Commitment and consistency
Techniques based on commitment and consistency include:
a. Foot-in-the-door
b. Low-ball
c. Bait-and-switch
d. Labelling
As to this principle, there is an assumption that once people make a commitment, they feel pressured to behave consistently with that commitment. If they are not being consistent with their commitment, they experience a psychological discomfort known as cognitive dissonance.
a. Foot-in-the-door technique
Foot-in-the-door is based on the principle of starting with a small request in order to get later compliance with a larger request. The term refers to the effort made by sale persons to get one foot in the door before trying to get their whole body in. If one can successfully get one foot in the house, there is a good chance for the whole body to follow suit. Similarly, there is an assumption if you can get a person to agree with a small request (e.g. can you donate RM1 to save Pandas), there is a high chance he/she will also agree with larger but related request (e.g. can you donate RM10 per month to Wild Life Club?).
b. Low-ball technique
In the low-ball technique, the key is to get someone to agree with a seemingly low-cost request, only to reveal later the additional cost. This is again consistent with the commitment and consistency principle. Cialdini, Cacioppo, Bassett and Miller (1978) asked students to participate in an experiment. Before being told that the experiment started at 7:00 AM, 56% agreed. Then the volunteers were told that the study was scheduled at 7:00 AM, and the volunteers could withdraw if they wished. None withdrew and 95% turned up at the scheduled time (the Low-Ball group). When a control group was asked to participate and were told about the unearthly hour timing of the experiment up front, only 24% agreed to participate.
c. Bait-and-switch technique
Similarly, in bait-and-switch, the person is allured to agree in a nice request, only to be told that there is a change later. People may be told about an unbelievably cheap car only to be allured into the show room and to be told later that car has been sold out.
d. Labelling technique
Labelling technique involves assigning a label to an individual and then requesting a favour that is consistent with the label. Labelling a person as being generous and the requesting a donation is an example of the labelling technique.
2. Reciprocation
The appreciation for reciprocity is the basis of these two techniques, there are:
a. Door-in-the-face techniques
In door-in-the-face, an effective way to get people to comply with the request is by making an inflated request and the move on to a smaller one. Once people have to rejected the first request, they are more likely to go along with the smaller one. In this case, people want to reciprocate with the fact that they can say no to a larger request by agreeing to a smaller one.
b. That’s-not-all
In that’s-not-all, the bonus provides the incentive for people to agree with the request. In this situation, people would like to reciprocate for the free gifts they are about to receive by agreeing on the request to buy the product.
3. Scarcity
Techniques based on scarcity include limited-number-technique and fast-approaching deadline technique.
According to this principle, rare opportunities are more valuable than plentiful opportunities. For example, although Hello Kitty dolls only cost about RM29.90 in the store, some very limited editions can sell for as much as RM299.90 (Figure 4.4).
Figure 4.3 Limited edition of the Hello Kitty doll, only RM299.90.
a. Limited-Number-Technique
Limited number, limited edition or limited days available are examples of getting people to agree to get products that are “seemingly” limited in nature. For example: A limited edition of Louis Vutton handbags can be restricted to only 3 items in the whole world.
b. Fast-Approaching Deadline Technique
An item or price is only applicable during certain periods. For example, you can only a product at a cetain price on member’s day.
4. Capturing and disruption
Techniques based on capturing and disruption attention include pique and disrupt-then-reframe. People with stronger arguments try to capture attention whereas people with weaker arguments try to disrupt the attention.
a. Pique technique
In the pique technique, people try to capture the attention by making the request novel. Asking for a RM2.78 donation may be more effective than asking for RM 3 donation.
b. Disrupt-then-reframe technique
The disrupt-then-reframe is a technique that is intended to distract attention from the potential costs or limitations of a product, service, or proposal. In particular, individuals first introduce a subtle disruption to a sales script, such as pretending to inadvertently state the price in sen rather than ringgit, before correcting themselves and then highlighting the benefit of some product. For example a cupcake can be said as being sold for 300 sen and later only as RM3.00.
Reading
Please read “Techniques of Social Influence” on pages 228-235 of your textbook.
Activity 4.2
1. What are the four basic principles of social influences?
2. What are the four techniques of social influence that based on the principle of commitment and consistency?
3. What are the two types of reciprocation techniques?
4. What are the two techniques that based on scarcity?
5. What are the two techniques that based on capturing and disrupting attention?
Persuasion
Persuasion is an attempt to change a person’s attitude and the scientific study can be traced back to Carl Hovland (Baumeister and Bushman 2010). He was the social psychologist from Yale University who studied the effect of films on soldier morale. He and other co-researchers then studied what can be termed as “who says what to whom” as:
1. Who: the source: The “who” component represents the source of the message.
2. Says what: the message: The “says what” is the actual message being conveyed.
3. To whom: the audience: the “whom” refers to the audience.
These three constructs represent three things that are important in persuasion:
1. The source of persuasion
2. The message
3. The audience
Let us consider each one of them keeping in mind that the two important criteria that can determine the effectiveness of the persuasion are credibility and likeability.
1. Who: the source
a. Source credibility
A source can be viewed as credible if he/she is seen as an expert and can be trusted. Experts can be influential because people assume they know what they are talking about but at the same they also have to be trustworthy. Pharmacists, clergy, physicians and professors are perceived by public to be trustworthy as opposed to car or insurance salesperson. Powerful speakers also perceived to be credible. There are also television advertisements that are constructed to make the communicator appear expert and trustworthy. A drug company may advertise its pain reliever by using a person in a white coat who may say that doctors are recommending this particular drug. This is known as perceived trustworthiness. On the contrary, sometimes messages from less credible sources can become enhanced via an attitude change called the sleeper effect. In this situation, people forget the source but are influenced by the message alone. This is most likely to occur when the message itself is convincing enough to persuade people and people are also given information discounting the credibility of the source after the message has been received.
b. Source likability
A source is likeable if he/she is seen as similar and attractive. In a study on the effectiveness of persuasion on a group of students at University of California, Santa Barbara, the message was found to be more effective if the source was fellow student from the same university (Baumeister and Bushman 2010). The halo effect refers to the assumption that because people have desirable traits such as physical attractiveness, they may also have other desirable effects such as intelligence. This is why a message delivered by an attractive person is perceived as more powerful than a message delivered by a less attractive person. Now you can understand why many beer commercials feature young and attractive women in skimpy clothing. These women can be seen as peripheral cues (cues that trigger automatic acceptance without much thinking, deliberately placed in commercials to arouse positive feelings among male viewers.
2. Says what: the message
A message can be divided into different dimensions:
a. Reason versus emotion
b. Stealing thunder
c. Repetition
d. Advertisement-wear-out
a. Reason versus emotion
Social psychologists recognised that a message as can be considered from various dimensions. For example, when presenting the message, two alternatives are available:
i. To appeal to reason: In reason, the argument is presented in facts, logic and reason
ii. To appeal to emotion: In emotion, humour or fear is used to appeal to people.
The use of humour can put people in a good mood and thus lead them to be more receptive of the persuasive message. Most attitude change occurs when a moderate level of fear is induced (as opposed to too little or too much because if the audience is induced with too much fear, they may not be able to process it the message content effectively due to anxiety). Well-educated and analytical people however are more responsive to a message based on logic and reason (Baumeister and Bushman 2010).
Figure 4.4 People who are happy are more receptive to persuasive messages.
b. Stealing thunder
Stealing thunder refers to the process of revealing potentially incriminating evidence as an attempt to diminish its importance. For example, in a court case a defence lawyer can say that his client is a prostitute and shoplifter but only did so because she had little children. Hence, this can work for two reasons; it provides a peripheral cue for credibility and it shows the accused as being more honest and forthright. The jury might find this information perplexing and may devalue the importance of the information. This can also be seen when criminals are being bought to court. Some of them will be dressed in a mirror image of a holy and highly religious man. This can sway the jury’s verdict by making them think that such a man could not have committed a rape or he has now repented of his deeds.
c. Repetition
Repetition can be effective if the message is neutral but it can be damaging if the person already made up his/her mind to dislike the message.
d. Advertisement-wear-out
Even when the person initially likes the message, advertisement-wear-out can occur leading to the emergence of inattention and irritation.
Overly repetitive messages typically have a negative effect on customer attitudes as they relate to a brand. Advertising wear-out occurs when, at some level of repetition, the customer's affective response is either no longer positive or shows a significant decline. Advertising wear-out is the result of excessive frequency causing viewers to perceive there's nothing new to be gained from processing the advertisement, thereby withdrawing attention. That's assuming all possible customers view every exposure, which is unrealistic. Not every customer will see every rotation. That's why it becomes difficult to find the optimal level of exposure. Media planners must remember that not every rotation is seen by all customers.
Wear-out can also be a hazard, causing negative customer attitudes. Aggressively communicating with your customers doesn't always lead to poor or deteriorating relationships. But unless media's carefully planned and executed, it may ruin the opportunity to build long-term customer equity. So, the question is "How do marketers solve the puzzle of how frequently to expose their advertisements?" First, we have to address the issue of wear-out. To avoid wear-out, marketers frequently develop and rotate a pool of advertisements that employ different executions but convey the same basic message and claims. These executions typically share a number of common features, such as brand name, logo, tag line and general layout, while other features such as headline, copy and graphic elements are varied. The logic is that by introducing ample variations in advertising executions, the onset of wear-out will be delayed. At the same time, the continued use of certain features of the advertisement across executions establishes consistency and presumably builds brand recognition or equity.
To understand why wear-out occurs, scientists studied the brain to understand cognitive thinking and responses to these situations. They found the brain tends to ignore an object or theme that's repeated too many times. Essentially, most communication works by triggering memories. Old images or concepts are associated with something in the advertisement, recognizing elements as familiar. In the process, something new may be introduced and the brain links it with the old. When something new or unknown to a customer is presented to the brain for processing it evaluates: a) whether it is new and b) whether it corresponds to prior experience, knowledge and beliefs. The familiar portion of the advertisement is treated more casually. The brain recognises it and spends less time evaluating its validity. It's interpreted as given. To that end, marketers should change portions of advertisements to keep customers interested.
Of course, when considering advertising wear-out, we must consider that each situation, product, market, and many other characteristics are always variable factors that cannot be conformed to an "advertising mold". Each situation must be dealt with differently. Radio, television and print media wear-out at different levels; print media tends to wear-out more quickly than more entertaining forms of media such as television. For example, which would you rather do, watch a commercial over and over, or read an article over and over? Obviously the stimulation that occurs with entertaining commercials will bring customers back more easily than a newspaper or magazine article.
The best way for marketers to fend off wear-out is to rotate variations in theme with different executions of the same message strategy.
Regarding low frequencies, the question remains, "What isn't enough?" That's also dependent on the situation, but budget allowing, multiple exposures are more effective than one or a few. Media schedules are based on budgets and demographics. When selling products to the elderly, a low frequency will generally suffice. As for teens, the higher the frequency the better. Business-to-business typically requires higher frequency, as well. Simply put, the shorter the attention span of the customer, the more exposures necessary to break through.
There's no finite answer to the question of advertising wear-out. The most important variables in deciding the optimal frequency are an understanding of the customer, rotating different advertisements, and keeping the customer's attention. There are rewards in reminding the consumer about the attributes of a brand. Reinforcement and refreshment of existing attribute, without wearing out the message, is a primary goal of advertising.
3. To whom: the audience
Some people are easier to be persuaded compared to others, these are based on:
a. Intelligence: Moderately intelligent people are easiest to persuade.
b. Need for cognition: People with high need for cognition have attitudes that are more resistance to change.
c. Concern about public image: For people, who are concerned about their appearance, message related to brands and stylish products are more appealing to them.
d. Age: Younger people are easier to change compared to older people. However, the oldest adult may also change their attitude more easily compared to middle-aged because of a decline in the strength of their attitudes.
Figure 4.6 Younger people can be easily persuaded compared to older people.
e. Culture differences: People from culture that emphasises on individuals tend to be more persuaded by message that also emphasises on the same aspect.
f. Overheard messages: People are also more persuaded by message they perceive as not designed to persuade them.
g. Distraction: Distraction can sometimes be good in a way that they can get the conscious mind out of the way and make people more gullible. But they can also make people less able to seriously consider good logical arguments.
Reading
Please read “Persuasion” on pages 235-247 of your textbook.
Activity 4.3
1. What are the three components of the persuasive process?
2. What are the two most important characteristics of the source of a message?
3. Messages can be vary on several dimensions. Elaborate.
4. What are the six characteristics of audience?
Resisting persuasion
There are various ways to resist persuasion:
1. Attitude inoculation
2. Forewarned
3. Stockpile
4. Defences against influence
1. Attitude inoculation
In attitude inoculation, people who have been exposed to counterarguments are more resistance to the persuasion. This is consistent with the idea that a person becomes more resistant to diseases if he/she has been exposed to weakened doses of viruses that strengthen his/her immune system.
2. Forewarned
Being forewarned of the persuasion attempts can protect a person from being persuaded. When people believe someone is trying to persuade them and may take away their freedom of choice, they experience psychology reactance that motivates them to resist such attempt (Baumeister and Bushman 2010). This is because forewarning influences several cognitive processes that play an important role in persuasion. Forewarning gives us the opportunity to come up with counter arguments that can refute the message and gives people more time to recall relevant facts that can help refute the message When people do the exact opposite of what they are being persuaded to do; this is called negative attitude change or a boomerang effect.
3. Stockpile
A person with physical, cognitive and social resources are more likely to resist persuasion. In dealing with persuasion, a healthy, well-read person may be able to resist it better.
4. Defences against influence techniques
In addition, there are also defences to be use against the influence techniques. These techniques are related to the techniques of social influences. If we are aware of various social influence techniques and perceive them as tricks to persuade us, we can resist them better.
Reading
Please read “Resisting Persuasion” on pages 247-252 of your textbook.
Activity 4.4
Briefly explain some useful ways to resist persuasion.
Summary
In this section we discussed two forms of social influence, the normative and the informational influence and the four techniques of social influence. Then we looked at the definition of persuasion and the constructs that represent it. Finally we explored the characteristics of who can be persuaded easily and the various ways to resist persuasion.
Self-test 4.1
Discuss various techniques of social influences. Imagine you want to persuade a friend to do bungee jumping. How can you use these techniques to achieve your goals?
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Suggested answers to activities
Feedback
Activity 4.1
1. a) Normative influence
b) Informational influence
2. a) Public compliance
3. a) Ambiguous situations, so people do not know how to behave.
b) Crisis situations, people don’t have time to think themselves.
Activity 4.2
1. a) Techniques based on commitment and consistency
b) Techniques based on reciprocation
c) Techniques based on scarcity
d) Techniques based on capturing and disrupting attention
2. a) Foot-in-the-door technique
b) Low-ball technique
c) Bait-and-switch technique
d) Labeling technique
3. a) Door-in-the-face technique
b) That’s-not-all technique
4. a) Limited number technique
b) Deadline approaching technique
5. a) Pique technique
b) Disrupt-then-reframe technique
Activity 4.3
1. a) Who: the source
b) Says what: the message
c) To whom: the audience
2. a) Credibility
b) Likability
3. Reason versus emotion: People who in a good mood are more receptive to persuasive message.
Stealing thunder: Fear appeals can change attitudes if they don’t induce too much fear and if the audience is told how to avoid the fearful outcome.
Repetition: Often persuasive messages, such as advertisers can sometimes enhance sales by seeming to argue against their own self-interest.
4. a) Intelligence
b) Need for cognition
c) Concern about public image
d) Age
e) Cultural Differences
f) Overheard Messages
g) Distraction
Activity 4.4
1. Attitude inoculation: In attitude inoculation, people who have been exposed to counterarguments are more resistance to the persuasion. This is consistent with the idea that a person becomes more resistant to diseases if he/she has been exposed to weakened doses of viruses that strengthen his/her immune system.
Stockpile: A person with physical, cognitive and social resources are more likely to resist persuasion. In dealing with persuasion, a healthy, well-read person may be able to resist it better.
Defences against influence techniques: In addition, there are also defences to be use against the influence techniques. These techniques are related to the techniques of social influences. If we are aware of various social influence techniques and perceive them as tricks to persuade us, we can resist them better.
Web resource
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